Building Social Capital through Distance Education in Asia
Main Article Content
Abstract
The effectiveness of distance education can be evaluated at the institutional level in terms of retention, and certification. At the student level, effectiveness can be evaluated in terms of skills mastered, increased salary awarded and new employment secured, as well as achieving other long-term goals. However at the societal level, the effectiveness of distance education should be measured in economic terms such as social capital. In rich developed regions, education can lead to increased social capital, community development and long-term achievements, but in poor undeveloped regions, the same education leads to social capital that can be socially divisive with increased inequalities. This Paper looks at how distance education can be structured so that social capital can be increased in poor undeveloped regions particularly in Asia - leading to reductions in social inequality. Distance education has had roots in correspondence education in rural areas for about one hundred years, and more recently with rural penetration of the internet for about twenty years, although in some areas of Asia there is still no internet communication. With the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 2008, this is an opportune time to re-evaluate the effectiveness of distance education, and see how it may be structured better to ensure the building of social capital. A transactional distance model is used based on social constructionism theory of knowledge being in relations and interactions, rather than positivist in the world, or cognitivist in the mind. The transactional distance model is well supported by other critical thinking models and by the theory of transactional distance. It is concluded that distance education often short-cuts structure - notably in skills training programmes, but also in general education, in regions throughout Asia - and that structure in the form of disjunctive reasoning and problem solving skills needs more attention. It is also noted that better instruments are needed to measure in context the long-term effects from distance education on social capital and lifelong learning.
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KAWACHI , P. (2008). Building Social Capital through Distance Education in Asia. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 6(1), 15-26. Retrieved from https://asianjde.com/ojs/index.php/AsianJDE/article/view/113
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References
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http://siteresources.worldbank.org/WBI/Res ources/Analyzing_Social_Capital_in_Conte xt-FINAL.pdf Emler, N., & McNamara, S. (1996). The social contact patterns of young people : Effects of participation in the social institutions of family, education and work. In H. Helve, & J. Bynner (Eds.), Youth and life management : Research perspectives, (pp. 121-139). Helsinki : Yliopistopaino. Field, J. (2003a). Civic engagement and lifelong learning : Survey findings on social capital and attitudes towards learning. Studies in the Education of Adults, 35 (2), 142-156. Field, J. (2003b). Social capital. London : Routledge. Fricker, B. (Moderator) (2002). The future of technology for developing countries. The Commonwealth of Learning, Pre PanCommonwealth Forum on Open Learning, hosted by the Canadian Association for Distance Education (CADE). Retrieved April 22, 2003, from http://www.col.org/programmes/conference s/virt_02_rpts/tech.htm Huang, D. (2002). The development of higher education e-learning in China. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference, 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Joung, Y.R., & Kim, S.Y. (2002). Design template framework of learning object for reusable e-learning contents. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference, (p. 109). 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Jung, I. (1999). The development of virtual institutions in Korea. In G.M. Farrell (Ed.), The development of virtual education : A global perspective. Vancouver, BC : Commonwealth of Learning. Jung, I. (2002). Promises and challenges of elearning in a globalized society. Plenary Session II, Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference. 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Junjie, S., Long, F., & Liming, G. (2002). Evaluation research on web-based multimedia instructional software. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference, (pp. 137-8). 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Kawachi, P. (1999). Constructive critique. Unpublished tutor-marked assignment TMA04 27th June. Available from the author by email kawachi@open-ed.net .
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Kawachi, P. (2002a). Why the sun doesn’t rise : Empirical findings that explain the exclusion of Japanese from online global education, and suggested solutions. Global E-Journal of Open, Flexible and Distance Education, 2 (1). Retrieved May 18, 2003, from http://www.ignou.ac.in/ejournal/contentsII?PaulKawachi.htm Kawachi, P. (2002b). Poverty and access : The impact of language on online collaborative learning for Japanese learners. In H.P. Dikshit, S. Garg, S. Panda, & Vijayshri (Eds.), Access & equity : Challenges for open and distance learning, (pp. 159-170). New Delhi, India : Kogan Page. Kawachi, P. (2003a). Vicarious interaction and the achieved quality of learning. International Journal on E-Learning, 2 (4), 39-45. Kawachi, P. (2003b). Choosing the appropriate media to support the learning process. Journal of Educational Technology, 14 ( 1 & 2), 1-18. Kawachi, P. (2004). Course design & choice of media by applying the Theory of Transactional Distance. Open Education Research, 2, 16-19 Kawachi, P. (2005a). Computers, multimedia and e-learning. In U.V. Reddi & S. Mishra (Eds.), Educational media in Asia, (pp. 97122). Vancouver : Commonwealth of Learning. Kawachi, P. (2005b). Empirical validation of a multimedia construct for learning. In S. Mishra, & R. Sharma (Eds.), Interactive Multimedia in Education and Training, (pp. 158-183). Hershey, PA : IDEA Group Kawachi, P. (2007). Advanced Technologies for Distance Education. Published Graduation Thesis (18 July 2007). University of West Georgia. http://paulkawachi.blogspot.com , http://www.open-ed.net/library/R3405.pdf Kawachi, P. (2008). Educational reform in Japan for lifelong learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 28 (5), (in press). Kawachi, P., & Le Thi Thanh (2006). Peer-topeer annotated readings online for costsavings and improved quality of learning in open education. Proceedings of the 20th AAOU Conference, 11-14 October, Kunming, Yunnan, China. Kim, Hyesoo, & Cheol-Hyeon Roh (2002). Three approaches to increase the quality of distance education in Korea. Proceedings of the 15th AAOU Conference, (p. 74). February 21-23, Indira Gandhi National open University, New Delhi, India. Asian
Association of Open Universities. Lawanto, O. (2000). Applying interactive learning technology in improving teaching quality training for faculty members at Universitas Surabaya Indonesia. Proceedings of the International Learning and Sharing Forum on Empowering Universities and Small Medium Enterprises. Annual Conference of the Association of Asia and Pacific Universities, October, Surabaya, Indonesia. Retrieved April 29, 2003, from http://gdenet.idln.or.id/country/ar_indonesia /IMPR_TEACH_full.htm Manohar, K.M. (2002). Reaching the unreached in higher education : The role of ODL in the digital era. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference. 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities Miles, M.B. (1982). A mini-cross-site analysis. American Behavioral Scientist, 26 (1), 121132. Moore, M. G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed), Theoretical principles of distance education, (pp. 2238). London : Routledge. Patton, M.Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Newbury Park, CA : Sage. Peters, O. (1973). Die didaktische Struktur des Fernunterrichts : Untersuchungen zu einer industralisierten Form des Lehrens und Lernens. Tubinger Beitrage zum Fernstudium 7, Weinheim : Beltz. Robertshaw, M. (2002). Enhancing peer-to-peer support through the internet. Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference, (p. 117). 21-23 February, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India. Asian Association of Open Universities. Sabio, C.J. (2002). Understanding distance educational learning in the Philippines : Profile and study habits. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference, (p. 128). 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Saleh, M.N. (undated, c2000). The future of distance education in Malaysia : The role of information technology. Presentation as part of a Funding Application to the Malaysian Government, added to a review of Distance Education in Malaysia. Retrieved April 24, 2003, from http:gdenet.idln.or.id/country/ar_malaysia/ CR_Malaysia.htm Sorensen, C. (2000). Social capital and rural development : A discussion of issues. Social Capital Initiative Working Paper No 10.
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Washington, DC : World Bank Institute Retrieved December 15, 2007, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOC IALCAPITAL/Resources/Social-CapitalInitiative-Working-Paper-Series/SCI-WPS10.pdf Tandon, N. (1998). Barriers to information and communication technologies encountered by women. Asian region, report on gender barriers to ICT. New Delhi, India : Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia. Retrieved April 3, 2003, from http://www.col.org/wdd/ Tang, T. K-W., & Fung, Y. Y-H. (2002). A comparison of two learning communities in the digital era – how contexts and functions affect online participation in distance learning courses for teachers. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference, 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Thilagavathy, N.S.S., & Namasivayam, N. (2002). Imperatives of research in marketoriented strategy for open and distance education of Madurai Kamaraj University, India : A case study. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference. 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities.
Tsuji, M., Kubo, D., Taoka, F., & Teshima, M. (2002). The role and issues of international tele-education. Proceedings of the 15th AAOU Conference, (p.96). 21-23 February, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India. Asian Association of Open Universities. Vaziri, A. (2002). Education in the era of information and communication technologies. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference, (p. 102). 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Vyas, R.V., R.C. Sharma, & A. Kumar (2003). Delivery tools of distance learning in psychology through internet : An overview. In N.K. Chandel, R. Jit, S. Mal, & A. Sharma (Eds), Psychological implications of information technology, (pp. 124-140). Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, India. Walker, K., & Hackman, M. (1992). Multiple predictors of perceived learning and satisfaction. Distance Education, 13 (1).
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/WBI/Res ources/Analyzing_Social_Capital_in_Conte xt-FINAL.pdf Emler, N., & McNamara, S. (1996). The social contact patterns of young people : Effects of participation in the social institutions of family, education and work. In H. Helve, & J. Bynner (Eds.), Youth and life management : Research perspectives, (pp. 121-139). Helsinki : Yliopistopaino. Field, J. (2003a). Civic engagement and lifelong learning : Survey findings on social capital and attitudes towards learning. Studies in the Education of Adults, 35 (2), 142-156. Field, J. (2003b). Social capital. London : Routledge. Fricker, B. (Moderator) (2002). The future of technology for developing countries. The Commonwealth of Learning, Pre PanCommonwealth Forum on Open Learning, hosted by the Canadian Association for Distance Education (CADE). Retrieved April 22, 2003, from http://www.col.org/programmes/conference s/virt_02_rpts/tech.htm Huang, D. (2002). The development of higher education e-learning in China. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference, 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Joung, Y.R., & Kim, S.Y. (2002). Design template framework of learning object for reusable e-learning contents. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference, (p. 109). 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Jung, I. (1999). The development of virtual institutions in Korea. In G.M. Farrell (Ed.), The development of virtual education : A global perspective. Vancouver, BC : Commonwealth of Learning. Jung, I. (2002). Promises and challenges of elearning in a globalized society. Plenary Session II, Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference. 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Junjie, S., Long, F., & Liming, G. (2002). Evaluation research on web-based multimedia instructional software. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference, (pp. 137-8). 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Kawachi, P. (1999). Constructive critique. Unpublished tutor-marked assignment TMA04 27th June. Available from the author by email kawachi@open-ed.net .
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Kawachi, P. (2002a). Why the sun doesn’t rise : Empirical findings that explain the exclusion of Japanese from online global education, and suggested solutions. Global E-Journal of Open, Flexible and Distance Education, 2 (1). Retrieved May 18, 2003, from http://www.ignou.ac.in/ejournal/contentsII?PaulKawachi.htm Kawachi, P. (2002b). Poverty and access : The impact of language on online collaborative learning for Japanese learners. In H.P. Dikshit, S. Garg, S. Panda, & Vijayshri (Eds.), Access & equity : Challenges for open and distance learning, (pp. 159-170). New Delhi, India : Kogan Page. Kawachi, P. (2003a). Vicarious interaction and the achieved quality of learning. International Journal on E-Learning, 2 (4), 39-45. Kawachi, P. (2003b). Choosing the appropriate media to support the learning process. Journal of Educational Technology, 14 ( 1 & 2), 1-18. Kawachi, P. (2004). Course design & choice of media by applying the Theory of Transactional Distance. Open Education Research, 2, 16-19 Kawachi, P. (2005a). Computers, multimedia and e-learning. In U.V. Reddi & S. Mishra (Eds.), Educational media in Asia, (pp. 97122). Vancouver : Commonwealth of Learning. Kawachi, P. (2005b). Empirical validation of a multimedia construct for learning. In S. Mishra, & R. Sharma (Eds.), Interactive Multimedia in Education and Training, (pp. 158-183). Hershey, PA : IDEA Group Kawachi, P. (2007). Advanced Technologies for Distance Education. Published Graduation Thesis (18 July 2007). University of West Georgia. http://paulkawachi.blogspot.com , http://www.open-ed.net/library/R3405.pdf Kawachi, P. (2008). Educational reform in Japan for lifelong learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 28 (5), (in press). Kawachi, P., & Le Thi Thanh (2006). Peer-topeer annotated readings online for costsavings and improved quality of learning in open education. Proceedings of the 20th AAOU Conference, 11-14 October, Kunming, Yunnan, China. Kim, Hyesoo, & Cheol-Hyeon Roh (2002). Three approaches to increase the quality of distance education in Korea. Proceedings of the 15th AAOU Conference, (p. 74). February 21-23, Indira Gandhi National open University, New Delhi, India. Asian
Association of Open Universities. Lawanto, O. (2000). Applying interactive learning technology in improving teaching quality training for faculty members at Universitas Surabaya Indonesia. Proceedings of the International Learning and Sharing Forum on Empowering Universities and Small Medium Enterprises. Annual Conference of the Association of Asia and Pacific Universities, October, Surabaya, Indonesia. Retrieved April 29, 2003, from http://gdenet.idln.or.id/country/ar_indonesia /IMPR_TEACH_full.htm Manohar, K.M. (2002). Reaching the unreached in higher education : The role of ODL in the digital era. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference. 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities Miles, M.B. (1982). A mini-cross-site analysis. American Behavioral Scientist, 26 (1), 121132. Moore, M. G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed), Theoretical principles of distance education, (pp. 2238). London : Routledge. Patton, M.Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Newbury Park, CA : Sage. Peters, O. (1973). Die didaktische Struktur des Fernunterrichts : Untersuchungen zu einer industralisierten Form des Lehrens und Lernens. Tubinger Beitrage zum Fernstudium 7, Weinheim : Beltz. Robertshaw, M. (2002). Enhancing peer-to-peer support through the internet. Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference, (p. 117). 21-23 February, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India. Asian Association of Open Universities. Sabio, C.J. (2002). Understanding distance educational learning in the Philippines : Profile and study habits. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference, (p. 128). 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Saleh, M.N. (undated, c2000). The future of distance education in Malaysia : The role of information technology. Presentation as part of a Funding Application to the Malaysian Government, added to a review of Distance Education in Malaysia. Retrieved April 24, 2003, from http:gdenet.idln.or.id/country/ar_malaysia/ CR_Malaysia.htm Sorensen, C. (2000). Social capital and rural development : A discussion of issues. Social Capital Initiative Working Paper No 10.
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Washington, DC : World Bank Institute Retrieved December 15, 2007, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOC IALCAPITAL/Resources/Social-CapitalInitiative-Working-Paper-Series/SCI-WPS10.pdf Tandon, N. (1998). Barriers to information and communication technologies encountered by women. Asian region, report on gender barriers to ICT. New Delhi, India : Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia. Retrieved April 3, 2003, from http://www.col.org/wdd/ Tang, T. K-W., & Fung, Y. Y-H. (2002). A comparison of two learning communities in the digital era – how contexts and functions affect online participation in distance learning courses for teachers. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference, 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Thilagavathy, N.S.S., & Namasivayam, N. (2002). Imperatives of research in marketoriented strategy for open and distance education of Madurai Kamaraj University, India : A case study. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference. 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities.
Tsuji, M., Kubo, D., Taoka, F., & Teshima, M. (2002). The role and issues of international tele-education. Proceedings of the 15th AAOU Conference, (p.96). 21-23 February, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India. Asian Association of Open Universities. Vaziri, A. (2002). Education in the era of information and communication technologies. Proceedings of the 16th AAOU Conference, (p. 102). 5-7 November, Seoul, Korea. Asian Association of Open Universities. Vyas, R.V., R.C. Sharma, & A. Kumar (2003). Delivery tools of distance learning in psychology through internet : An overview. In N.K. Chandel, R. Jit, S. Mal, & A. Sharma (Eds), Psychological implications of information technology, (pp. 124-140). Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, India. Walker, K., & Hackman, M. (1992). Multiple predictors of perceived learning and satisfaction. Distance Education, 13 (1).